Citation Information :
Ashraf M, Shahzad N, Irshad M, Hussain SQ, Ahmed P. Pediatric acute kidney injury: A syndrome under paradigm shift. Indian J Crit Care Med 2014; 18 (8):518-526.
The recent standardization and validation of definitions of pediatric acute kidney injury (pAKI) has ignited new dimensions of pAKI epidemiology and its risk factors. pAKI causes increased morbidity and mortality in critically ill-children. Among the hospitalized patients incidence of pAKI ranges from 1% to 31%, while mortality ranges from 28% to 82%, presenting a broad range due to lack of uniformly acceptable pAKI definition. In addition, cumulative data regarding the progression of pAKI to chronic kidney disease in children is rising. Despite these alarming figures, treatment modalities have failed to deliver significantly. In this review, we will summarize the latest developments of pAKI and highlight important aspects of pAKI management.
Andreoli S. Clinical evaluation and management. In: Avner E, Harmon W, Niaudet P, editors. Pediatric Nephrology. Philadelphia: Lippincott Williams and Wilkins; 2004. p. 1233-12352.
Ronco C, McCullough PA, Chawla LS. Kidney attack versus heart attack: Evolution of classification and diagnostic criteria. Lancet 2013;382:939-40.
Haase M, Devarajan P, Haase-Fielitz A, Bellomo R, Cruz DN, Wagener G, et al. The outcome of neutrophil gelatinase-associated lipocalin-positive subclinical acute kidney injury: A multicenter pooled analysis of prospective studies. J Am Coll Cardiol 2011;57:1752-61.
Ronco C, Stacul F, McCullough PA. Subclinical acute kidney injury (AKI) due to iodine-based contrast media. Eur Radiol 2013;23:319-23.
Tsigou E, Psallida V, Demponeras C, Boutzouka E, Baltopoulos G. Role of new biomarkers: Functional and structural damage. Crit Care Res Pract 2013;2013:361078.
Bellomo R, Ronco C, Kellum JA, Mehta RL, Palevsky P; Acute Dialysis Quality Initiative Workgroup. Acute renal failure-definition, outcome measures, animal models, fluid therapy and information technology needs: The Second International Consensus Conference of the Acute Dialysis Quality Initiative (ADQI) Group. Crit Care 2004;8:R204-12.
Mehta RL, Kellum JA, Shah SV, Molitoris BA, Ronco C, Warnock DG, et al. Acute kidney injury network: Report of an initiative to improve outcomes in acute kidney injury. Crit Care 2007;11:R31.
Akcan-Arikan A, Zappitelli M, Loftis LL, Washburn KK, Jefferson LS, Goldstein SL. Modified RIFLE criteria in critically ill children with acute kidney injury. Kidney Int 2007;71:1028-35.
Bailey D, Phan V, Litalien C, Ducruet T, Mérouani A, Lacroix J, et al. Risk factors of acute renal failure in critically ill children: A prospective descriptive epidemiological study. Pediatr Crit Care Med 2007;8:29-35.
Zappitelli M, Parikh CR, Akcan-Arikan A, Washburn KK, Moffett BS, Goldstein SL. Ascertainment and epidemiology of acute kidney injury varies with definition interpretation. Clin J Am Soc Nephrol 2008;3:948-54.
Brion LP, Fleischman AR, McCarton C, Schwartz GJ. A simple estimate of glomerular filtration rate in low birth weight infants during the first year of life: Noninvasive assessment of body composition and growth. J Pediatr 1986;109:698-707.
Lolekha PH, Jaruthunyaluck S, Srisawasdi P. Deproteinization of serum: Another best approach to eliminate all forms of bilirubin interference on serum creatinine by the kinetic Jaffe reaction. J Clin Lab Anal 2001;15:116-21.
Gallini F, Maggio L, Romagnoli C, Marrocco G, Tortorolo G. Progression of renal function in preterm neonates with gestational age < or = 32 weeks. Pediatr Nephrol 2000;15:119-24.
Lassnigg A, Schmid ER, Hiesmayr M, Falk C, Druml W, Bauer P, et al. Impact of minimal increases in serum creatinine on outcome in patients after cardiothoracic surgery: Do we have to revise current definitions of acute renal failure? Crit Care Med 2008;36:1129-37.
Thadhani R, Pascual M, Bonventre JV. Acute renal failure. N Engl J Med 1996;334:1448-60.
Hoste EA, De Waele JJ. Acute kidney injury in the intensive care unit: It′s the gene, stupid! Crit Care Med 2008;36:3266-7.
Cartin-Ceba R, Haugen EN, Iscimen R, Trillo-Alvarez C, Juncos L, Gajic O. Evaluation of "Loss" and "End stage renal disease" after acute kidney injury defined by the Risk, Injury, Failure, Loss and ESRD classification in critically ill patients. Intensive Care Med 2009;35:2087-95.
Sharfuddin AA, Weisbord SD, Palevsky PM, Molitoris BA. Acute kidney injury. In: Taal MW, Chartow GM, Marsden PA, Skoreki K, Yu AS, Brenner BM, editors. Brenners and Rectors the Kidney. 9 th ed. John Kennedy Blvd Phildelphia: Elsevier Saunders; 2012. p. 1045-99.
Williams DM, Sreedhar SS, Mickell JJ, Chan JC. Acute kidney failure: A pediatric experience over 20 years. Arch Pediatr Adolesc Med 2002;156:893-900.
Cao Y, Yi ZW, Zhang H, Dang XQ, Wu XC, Huang AW. Etiology and outcomes of acute kidney injury in Chinese children: A prospective multicentre investigation. BMC Urol 2013;13:41.
Srivastava RN, Choudhry VP. Acute renal failure in Delhi. Indian J Pediatr 1982;49:65-70.
Zappitelli M. Epidemiology and diagnosis of acute kidney injury. Semin Nephrol 2008;28:436-46.
Eriksen BO, Hoff KR, Solberg S. Prediction of acute renal failure after cardiac surgery: Retrospective cross-validation of a clinical algorithm. Nephrol Dial Transplant 2003;18:77-81.
Kheterpal S, Tremper KK, Heung M, Rosenberg AL, Englesbe M, Shanks AM, et al. Development and validation of an acute kidney injury risk index for patients undergoing general surgery: Results from a national data set. Anesthesiology 2009;110:505-15.
Thakar CV, Liangos O, Yared JP, Nelson DA, Hariachar S, Paganini EP. Predicting acute renal failure after cardiac surgery: Validation and re-definition of a risk-stratification algorithm. Hemodial Int 2003;7:143-7.
Van Why SK, Friedman AL, Wei LJ, Hong R. Renal insufficiency after bone marrow transplantation in children. Bone Marrow Transplant 1991;7:383-8.
Michael M, Kuehnle I, Goldstein SL. Fluid overload and acute renal failure in pediatric stem cell transplant patients. Pediatr Nephrol 2004;19:91-5.
Kist-van Holthe JE, Goedvolk CA, Brand R, van Weel MH, Bredius RG, van Oostayen JA, et al. Prospective study of renal insufficiency after bone marrow transplantation. Pediatr Nephrol 2002;17:1032-7.
Sever MS, Vanholder R, Lameire N. Management of crush-related injuries after disasters. N Engl J Med 2006;354:1052-63.
Szwed JJ. Urinalysis and clinical renal disease. Am J Med Technol 1980;46:720-5.
Tsai JJ, Yeun JY, Kumar VA, Don BR. Comparison and interpretation of urinalysis performed by a nephrologist versus a hospital-based clinical laboratory. Am J Kidney Dis 2005;46:820-9.
Goldstein SL. Kidney function assessment in the critically ill child: Is it time to leave creatinine behind? Crit Care 2007;11:141.
Herget-Rosenthal S, Marggraf G, Hüsing J, Göring F, Pietruck F, Janssen O, et al. Early detection of acute renal failure by serum cystatin C. Kidney Int 2004;66:1115-22.
Zappitelli M, Krawczeski CD, Devarajan P, Wang Z, Sint K, Thiessen-Philbrook H, et al. Early postoperative serum cystatin C predicts severe acute kidney injury following pediatric cardiac surgery. Kidney Int 2011;80:655-62.
Devarajan P. The future of pediatric acute kidney injury management - biomarkers. Semin Nephrol 2008;28:493-8.
Nguyen MT, Devarajan P. Biomarkers for the early detection of acute kidney injury. Pediatr Nephrol 2008;23:2151-7.
Cowland JB, Borregaard N. Molecular characterization and pattern of tissue expression of the gene for neutrophil gelatinase-associated lipocalin from humans. Genomics 1997;45:17-23.
Flo TH, Smith KD, Sato S, Rodriguez DJ, Holmes MA, Strong RK, et al. Lipocalin 2 mediates an innate immune response to bacterial infection by sequestrating iron. Nature 2004;432:917-21.
Grigoryev DN, Liu M, Hassoun HT, Cheadle C, Barnes KC, Rabb H. The local and systemic inflammatory transcriptome after acute kidney injury. J Am Soc Nephrol 2008;19:547-58.
Makris K, Rizos D, Kafkas N, Haliassos A. Neurophil gelatinase-associated lipocalin as a new biomarker in laboratory medicine. Clin Chem Lab Med 2012;50:1519-32.
Hirsch R, Dent C, Pfriem H, Allen J, Beekman RH rd, Ma Q, et al. NGAL is an early predictive biomarker of contrast-induced nephropathy in children. Pediatr Nephrol 2007;22:2089-95.
Nickolas TL, O′Rourke MJ, Yang J, Sise ME, Canetta PA, Barasch N, et al. Sensitivity and specificity of a single emergency department measurement of urinary neutrophil gelatinase-associated lipocalin for diagnosing acute kidney injury. Ann Intern Med 2008;148:810-9.
Mishra J, Dent C, Tarabishi R, Mitsnefes MM, Ma Q, Kelly C, et al. Neutrophil gelatinase-associated lipocalin (NGAL) as a biomarker for acute renal injury after cardiac surgery. Lancet 2005;365:1231-8.
Haase M, Bellomo R, Haase-Fielitz A. Neutrophil gelatinase-associated lipocalin. Curr Opin Crit Care 2010;16:526-32.
Parikh CR, Jani A, Melnikov VY, Faubel S, Edelstein CL. Urinary interleukin-18 is a marker of human acute tubular necrosis. Am J Kidney Dis 2004;43:405-14.
Parikh CR, Abraham E, Ancukiewicz M, Edelstein CL. Urine IL-18 is an early diagnostic marker for acute kidney injury and predicts mortality in the intensive care unit. J Am Soc Nephrol 2005;16:3046-52.
Leslie JA, Meldrum KK. The role of interleukin-18 in renal injury. J Surg Res 2008;145:170-5.
Vaidya VS, Ramirez V, Ichimura T, Bobadilla NA, Bonventre JV. Urinary kidney injury molecule-1: A sensitive quantitative biomarker for early detection of kidney tubular injury. Am J Physiol Renal Physiol 2006;290:F517-29.
Han WK, Waikar SS, Johnson A, Betensky RA, Dent CL, Devarajan P, et al. Urinary biomarkers in the early diagnosis of acute kidney injury. Kidney Int 2008;73:863-9.
Liangos O, Perianayagam MC, Vaidya VS, Han WK, Wald R, Tighiouart H, et al. Urinary N-acetyl-beta-(D)-glucosaminidase activity and kidney injury molecule-1 level are associated with adverse outcomes in acute renal failure. J Am Soc Nephrol 2007;18:904-12.
Wang G, Gong Y, Anderson J, Sun D, Minuk G, Roberts MS, et al. Antioxidative function of L-FABP in L-FABP stably transfected Chang liver cells. Hepatology 2005;42:871-9.
Yamamoto T, Noiri E, Ono Y, Doi K, Negishi K, Kamijo A, et al. Renal L-type fatty acid - binding protein in acute ischemic injury. J Am Soc Nephrol 2007;18:2894-902.
Doi K, Noiri E, Maeda-Mamiya R, Ishii T, Negishi K, Hamasaki Y, et al. Urinary L-type fatty acid-binding protein as a new biomarker of sepsis complicated with acute kidney injury. Crit Care Med 2010;38:2037-42.
Katagiri D, Doi K, Honda K, Negishi K, Fujita T, Hisagi M, et al. Combination of two urinary biomarkers predicts acute kidney injury after adult cardiac surgery. Ann Thorac Surg 2012;93:577-83.
Basu RK, Zappitelli M, Brunner L, Wang Y, Wong HR, Chawla LS, et al. Derivation and validation of the renal angina index to improve the prediction of acute kidney injury in critically ill children. Kidney Int 2014;85:659-67.
Siew ED, Furth SL. Acute kidney injury: A not-so-silent disease. Kidney Int 2014;85:494-5.
DiCarlo JV, Alexander SR, Agarwal R, Schiffman JD. Continuous veno-venous hemofiltration may improve survival from acute respiratory distress syndrome after bone marrow transplantation or chemotherapy. J Pediatr Hematol Oncol 2003;25:801-5.
Sutherland SM, Zappitelli M, Alexander SR, Chua AN, Brophy PD, Bunchman TE, et al. Fluid overload and mortality in children receiving continuous renal replacement therapy: The prospective pediatric continuous renal replacement therapy registry. Am J Kidney Dis 2010;55:316-25.
Goldstein SL, Currier H, Graf Cd, Cosio CC, Brewer ED, Sachdeva R. Outcome in children receiving continuous venovenous hemofiltration. Pediatrics 2001;107:1309-12.
Foland JA, Fortenberry JD, Warshaw BL, Pettignano R, Merritt RK, Heard ML, et al. Fluid overload before continuous hemofiltration and survival in critically ill children: A retrospective analysis. Crit Care Med 2004;32:1771-6.
Bouchard J, Soroko SB, Chertow GM, Himmelfarb J, Ikizler TA, Paganini EP, et al. Fluid accumulation, survival and recovery of kidney function in critically ill patients with acute kidney injury. Kidney Int 2009;76:422-7.
Guerin C, Girard R, Selli JM, Perdrix JP, Ayzac L. Initial versus delayed acute renal failure in the intensive care unit. A multicenter prospective epidemiological study. Rhône-Alpes Area Study Group on Acute Renal Failure. Am J Respir Crit Care Med 2000;161:872-9.
Prins JM, Weverling GJ, van Ketel RJ, Speelman P. Circadian variations in serum levels and the renal toxicity of aminoglycosides in patients. Clin Pharmacol Ther 1997;62:106-11.
Malacarne P, Bergamasco S, Donadio C. Nephrotoxicity due to combination antibiotic therapy with vancomycin and aminoglycosides in septic critically ill patients. Chemotherapy 2006;52:178-84.
Andreoli SP. Acute kidney injury in children. Pediatr Nephrol 2009;24:253-63.
Brienza N, Malcangi V, Dalfino L, Trerotoli P, Guagliardi C, Bortone D, et al. A comparison between fenoldopam and low-dose dopamine in early renal dysfunction of critically ill patients. Crit Care Med 2006;34:707-14.
Finfer S, Bellomo R, Boyce N, French J, Myburgh J, Norton R, et al. A comparison of albumin and saline for fluid resuscitation in the intensive care unit. N Engl J Med 2004;350:2247-56.
Vincent JL, Sakr Y, Sprung CL, Ranieri VM, Reinhart K, Gerlach H, et al. Sepsis in European intensive care units: Results of the SOAP study. Crit Care Med 2006;34:344-53.
Goldstein SL, Somers MJ, Baum MA, Symons JM, Brophy PD, Blowey D, et al. Pediatric patients with multi-organ dysfunction syndrome receiving continuous renal replacement therapy. Kidney Int 2005;67:653-8.
Swärd K, Valsson F, Odencrants P, Samuelsson O, Ricksten SE. Recombinant human atrial natriuretic peptide in ischemic acute renal failure: A randomized placebo-controlled trial. Crit Care Med 2004;32:1310-5.
Ricci Z, Stazi GV, Di Chiara L, Morelli S, Vitale V, Giorni C, et al. Fenoldopam in newborn patients undergoing cardiopulmonary bypass: Controlled clinical trial. Interact Cardiovasc Thorac Surg 2008;7:1049-53.
Mehta NM, Compher C, A.S.P.E.N. Board of Directors. A.S.P.E.N. Clinical Guidelines: Nutrition support of the critically ill child. JPEN J Parenter Enteral Nutr 2009;33:260-76.
Zappitelli M, Goldstein SL, Symons JM, Somers MJ, Baum MA, Brophy PD, et al. Protein and calorie prescription for children and young adults receiving continuous renal replacement therapy: A report from the Prospective Pediatric Continuous Renal Replacement Therapy Registry Group. Crit Care Med 2008;36:3239-45.
Goldstein SL, Somers MJ, Brophy PD, Bunchman TE, Baum M, Blowey D, et al. The Prospective Pediatric Continuous Renal Replacement Therapy (ppCRRT) Registry: Design, development and data assessed. Int J Artif Organs 2004;27:9-14.
Goldstein SL. Continuous renal replacement therapy: Mechanism of clearance, fluid removal, indications and outcomes. Curr Opin Pediatr 2011;23:181-5.
Sutherland SM, Alexander SR. Continuous renal replacement therapy in children. Pediatr Nephrol 2012;27:2007-16.
Bonilla-Félix M. Peritoneal dialysis in the pediatric intensive care unit setting. Perit Dial Int 2009;29 Suppl 2:S183-5.
Bagshaw SM, Bellomo R, Devarajan P, Johnson C, Karvellas CJ, Kutsiogiannis DJ, et al. Review article: Acute kidney injury in critical illness. Can J Anaesth 2010;57:985-98.
Palevsky PM, Liu KD, Brophy PD, Chawla LS, Parikh CR, Thakar CV, et al. KDOQI US commentary on the 2012 KDIGO clinical practice guideline for acute kidney injury. Am J Kidney Dis 2013;61:649-72.
De Backer D, Biston P, Devriendt J, Madl C, Chochrad D, Aldecoa C, et al. Comparison of dopamine and norepinephrine in the treatment of shock. N Engl J Med 2010;362:779-89.
Bhat MA, Shah ZA, Makhdoomi MS, Mufti MH. Theophylline for renal function in term neonates with perinatal asphyxia: A randomized, placebo-controlled trial. J Pediatr 2006;149:180-4.